UNCITRAL Documents

A. Origin

The United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) was established by the General Assembly in 1966 (Resolution 2205(XXI) of 17 December 1966). In establishing the Commission, the General Assembly recognized that disparities in national laws governing international trade created obstacles to the flow of trade, and it regarded the Commission as the vehicle by which the United Nations could play a more active role in reducing or removing these obstacles.

UNCITRAL is a subsidiary body of the General Assembly of the United Nations with the general mandate to further the progressive harmonization and unification of the law of international trade. UNCITRAL has since prepared a wide range of conventions, model laws and other instruments dealing with the substantive law that governs trade transactions or other aspects of business law which have an impact on international trade. UNCITRAL meets once a year, typically in summer, alternatively in New York and in Vienna.

It is important here to brief the difference between UNCITRAL and WTO since some peoples are confused of their difference and take one as part of the other, which in fact is not. UNCITRAL is a subsidiary body of the General Assembly of the United Nations.  The Secretariat of UNCITRAL is the International Trade Law Division of the Office of Legal Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat. In contrast, the World Trade Organization (WTO) is an intergovernmental organization independent from the United Nations.

Moreover, the issues dealt with by the WTO and UNCITRAL are different. The WTO deals with trade policy issues, such as trade liberalization, abolition of trade barriers, unfair trade practices or other similar issues usually related to public law, whereas UNCITRAL deals with the laws applicable to private parties in international transactions. As a consequence, UNCITRAL is not involved with "state-to-state" issues such as anti-dumping, countervailing duties, or import quotas.

UNCITRAL plays an important role in improving the legal framework for international trade by preparing international legislative texts for use by States in modernizing the law of international trade and non-legislative texts for use by commercial parties in negotiating transactions. UNCITRAL legislative texts address international sale of goods; international commercial dispute resolution, including both arbitration and conciliation; electronic commerce; insolvency, including cross-border insolvency; international transport of goods; international payments; procurement and infrastructure development; and security interests. Non-legislative texts include rules for conduct of arbitration and conciliation proceedings; notes on organizing and conducting arbitral proceedings; and legal guides on industrial construction contracts and counter trade.

When we look at the mandate or the objectives of its establishment the General Assembly gave the Commission the general mandate to further the progressive harmonization and unification of the law of international trade. The Commission has since come to be the core legal body of the United Nations system in the field of international trade law.

"Harmonization" and "unification" of the law of international trade refers to the process through which the law facilitating international commerce is created and adopted. International commerce may be hindered by factors such as the lack of a predictable governing law or out-of-date laws unsuited to commercial practice. The United Nations Commission on International Trade Law identifies such problems and then carefully crafts solutions which are acceptable to States having different legal systems and levels of economic and social development.

"Harmonization" may conceptually be thought of as the process through which domestic laws may be modified to enhance predictability in cross-border commercial transactions. "Unification" may be seen as the adoption by States of a common legal standard governing particular aspect of international business transactions.  A model law or a legislative guide is an example of a text which is drafted to harmonize domestic law, while a convention is an international instrument which is adopted by States for the unification of the law at an international level. Texts resulting from the work of UNCITRAL include conventions, model laws, legal guides, legislative guides, rules, and practice notes. In practice, the two concepts are closely related.

B. Membership

As is the case with most subsidiary bodies of the General Assembly, which is composed of all States members of the United Nations, membership in UNCITRAL is limited to a smaller number of States, so as to facilitate the deliberations. The General Assembly elects states to be a member of the Commission from UN member states. UNCITRAL was originally composed of 29 States; its membership was expanded in 1973 to 36 States and again in 2004 to 60 States. The membership is representative of the various geographic regions and the principal economic and legal systems of the world. Members of the Commission are elected for terms of six years, the terms of half the members expiring every three years.

In addition, there are five regional groups represented within the Commission: African States; Asian States; Eastern European States; Latin American and Caribbean States; Western European and Other States.

As from 25 June 2007, the members of UNCITRAL, and the years when their memberships expire, are listed bellow.

Thirty states whose membership expire in the year 2010 are Algeria, Australia, Austria, Belarus, Colombia, Czech Republic, Ecuador, Fiji, Gabon, Guatemala, India, Iran (Islamic Republic of), Israel, Italy, Kenya, Lebanon, Madagascar, Mongolia, Nigeria , Pakistan, Paraguay, Poland, Serbia, Spain, Switzerland, Thailand, Uganda, United States of America, Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of),  and Zimbabwe.

Where as the remaining thirty states whose membership expire in the year 2013 are Armenia, Bahrain, Benin, Bolivia, Bulgaria, Cameroon, Canada, Chile, China, Egypt, El Salvador , France, Germany , Greece, Honduras, Japan, Latvia,  Malaysia, Malta, Mexico, Morocco, Namibia, Norway , Republic of Korea, Russian Federation, Senegal, Singapore, South Africa, Sri Lanka, and United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

The degree of participation of developing nation is maintained to the possible extent. In accordance with its mandate, (Para. 9 of General Assembly resolution 2205 (XXI) of 17 December 1966), UNCITRAL takes into account in its work “the interests of all peoples, and particularly those of the developing countries, in the extensive development of international trade". Members of the Commission represent different geographic areas, and are elected by the General Assembly "having due regard to the adequate representation of the principal economic and legal systems of the world, and of developed and developing countries." (Id., para. 1).

Developing countries play an active role in both drafting and adoption UNCITRAL texts. The commitment of the Commission and the Secretariat to providing training and technical assistance to those countries is also long-standing and constant. Similarly, the General Assembly has expressed strong support for this work. For example, General Assembly resolution 55/151 of 12 December 2000 entitled "Report of the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law" "… reaffirms the importance, in particular for developing countries, of the work of the Commission concerned with training and technical assistance in the field of international trade law, such as assistance in the preparation of national legislation based on legal texts of the Commission".

Though UNCITRAL texts are initiated, drafted, and adopted substantially by a body made up of 60 elected member States representing different geographic regions, participants in the drafting process include the member States of the Commission and other States (referred to as "observer States"), as well as interested international inter-governmental organizations ("IGO's") and non-governmental organizations ("NGO's").

C. Documents adopted by UNCITRAL

So far since its establishment by the decision of the General Assembly of the UN, UNCITRAL has adopted four documents for the purpose of "Harmonization" and "unification" of the law of international trade. These are the 1976 UNCITRAL Arbitration Rules, the 1980 UNCITRAL Conciliation Rules, the UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration of 1985 which is later amended in 2006, and the UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Conciliation of 2002 which is also amended in 2004.

The following facts necessitated the adoption of the Arbitration Rules 1976;

1. 1. Recognizing the value of arbitration as a method of settling disputes arising in the context of international commercial relations,
   2. Being convinced that the establishment of rules for ad hoc arbitration that are acceptable in countries with different legal, social and economic systems would significantly contribute to the development of harmonious international economic relations,
   3. Bearing in mind that the Arbitration Rules of the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law have been prepared after extensive consultation with arbitral institutions and centres of international commercial arbitration,
   4. Noting that the Arbitration Rules were adopted by the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law at its ninth session after due deliberation,

This rule has 41 Article under IV different Sections. Section I deals about “Introductory Rules” including the scope of application of the rule, the second about “the composition of the arbitral tribunal”, then about the “arbitral proceeding” and the lastly one about the nature of “the award” including the costs there under.

The Generally Assembly adopted the second rule of UNCITRAL, i.e. 1980 Conciliation rules, which regulate conciliation as an alternative means of dispute settlement. The rules are divided in to 20 Articles and a Model Conciliation Clause. It stipulated a specific rule about the scope of application of the rule; the nomination, role, ethical responsibilities of the conciliators; the rule of evidence before them; the effect and costs of the conciliation proceeding. The followings were the observations of the time that necessitated the adoption of this rules, in addition to the general purpose of the UNCITRAL;

1. Recognizing the value of conciliation as a method of amicably settling disputes arising in the context of international commercial relations,
2. Convinced that the establishment of conciliation rules that are acceptable in countries with different legal, social and economic systems would significantly contribute to the development of harmonious international economic relations,
3. Noting that the Conciliation Rules of the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law were adopted by the Commission at its thirteenth session1 after consideration of the observations of Governments and interested organizations.

The recent two UNCITRAL documents which are model laws as the name it self indicates, are specifically meant to regulate arbitration and conciliation proceedings in the international commercial relations. A model law is a legislative text that is recommended to States for incorporation into their national law. Unlike an international convention, model legislation does not require the State enacting it to notify the United Nations or other States that may have also enacted it.

In incorporating the text of the model legislation into its legal system, a State may modify or leave out some of its provisions. In the case of a convention, the possibility of changes being made to the uniform text by the States parties (normally referred to as “reservations”) is much more restricted; in particular, trade law conventions usually either totally prohibit reservations or allow only very few, specified ones. The flexibility inherent in model legislation is particularly desirable in those cases where it is likely that the State would wish to make various modifications to the uniform text before it would be ready to enact it as national law. Some modifications may be expected in particular when the uniform text is closely related to the national court and procedural system. This, however, also means that the degree of, and certainty about, harmonization achieved through model legislation is likely to be lower than in the case of a convention. Because of the flexibility inherent in a model law, the number of States enacting model legislation is likely to be higher than the number of States adhering to a convention.

In order to achieve a satisfactory degree of harmonization and certainty, States should consider making as few changes as possible in incorporating the Model Law into their legal systems; however, if changes are made, they should remain within the basic principles of the Model Law. A significant reason for adhering as much as possible to the uniform text is to make the national law as transparent and familiar as possible for foreign parties, advisers and conciliators who participate in conciliations in the enacting State.

International trade and commerce have grown rapidly with cross border transactions being entered into by a growing number of entities, including small and medium-sized ones. With the increasing use of electronic commerce, where business is frequently conducted across national boundaries, the need for effective and efficient dispute resolution systems has become paramount. UNCITRAL has drafted the Model Law to assist States in designing dispute resolution processes that are intended to reduce costs of dispute settlement, foster maintaining a cooperative atmosphere between trading parties, prevent further disputes and inject certainty into international trade. By adopting the Model Law, and by educating parties engaged in international commerce about its purposes, the parties will be encouraged to seek non-adjudicative dispute settlement methods that will increase cost-effectiveness in the marketplace.

The objectives of the Model Law, which include encouraging the use of conciliation and providing greater predictability and certainty in its use, are important for fostering economy and efficiency in international trade.

The Model Law was developed in the context of recognition of the increasing use of Arbitration and conciliation as a method for settling commercial disputes. The Model Law was also designed to provide uniform rules in respect of the conciliation process. In many countries, the legal rules affecting conciliation are set out in various pieces of legislation and take differing approaches on issues such as confidentiality and evidentiary privilege and exceptions thereto. Uniformity on such topics helps to provide greater integrity and certainty in the conciliation process. The benefits of uniformity are magnified in cases involving conciliation via the Internet where the applicable law may not be self-evident.

UNCITRAL is a subordinate body in the UN which have the objective of harmonizing laws regulating international trade. So far it has adopted two arbitration and two more conciliation rules. The last two are model laws which can be used by the nations of the world in formulating their own domestic laws and treaties regulating arbitration and conciliation. This can be inferred from the latest optional laws of the PCA which have been made according to the UNCITRAL laws.

International Documents and Organs Regulating ADR

ADR is being recognized as the most effective means of settling international disputes of any type. Basically, diplomatic and commercial relations are being enhanced by the employment of amicable dispute resolution mechanisms. To help this disposition to ADR than to other courts, lots of treaties have been signed so far either under the supervision of the UN or under the initiation of other public and domestic institutions and states. Tribunals have been established as a result of these treaties to serve as the best forum in settling disputes of international and domestic nature.

In the coming discussions we will try to see few of these international documents and tribunals. The writer of this sections believes that there are much more institutions which are not discussed for it does not get priority. Students are encouraged to make a deeper look to the remaining institutions. Thus, the widely known international institutions like the American Arbitration Association (AAA), the London Court of International Arbitration (LCIA), the Singapore International Arbitration Centre (SIAC), and the Stockholm Chamber of Commerce are not discussed. There are also ADR tribunals that have specialized in settling dispute of specific nature. The London Maritime Arbitration Center is one of them.

I have selected four different sets of international documents for easy understanding of ADR in international level. The 1958 New York Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Arbitral Awards as adopted by the UN diplomatic conference on June 10, 1958 and entered in to force in 7^th of June, 1959 is the first one. Secondly, the five documents under the Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA) two of which are Conventions that established the PCA whereas the others are optional laws are summarized. The United Nation Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) and the documents under it are also introduced in the later part. Lastly, the institution of the International Chamber of Commerce, its tribunal (International Court of Arbitration – ICA) and its rules have been discussed.

New York Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Award, 1958

A. Background

The Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards, also known as the New York Convention, was adopted by a United Nations diplomatic conference on 10 June 1958 and entered into force on 7 June 1959. The Convention requires courts of contracting states to give effect to private agreements to arbitrate and to recognize and enforce arbitration awards made in other contracting states. Widely considered the foundational instrument for international arbitration, it applies to arbitrations which are not considered as domestic awards in the state where recognition and enforcement is sought. Though other international conventions apply to the cross-border enforcement of arbitration awards, the New York Convention is by far the most important.

In 1953, the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC) produced the first draft Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of International Arbitral Awards to the United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). With slight modifications, the ECOSCOC submitted the convention to the International Conference in the Spring of 1958. The Conference was chaired by Willem Schurmann, the Dutch Permanent Representative to the United Nations and Oscar Schachter, a leading figure in international law who later taught at Columbia Law School and School of International and Public Affairs, and served as the President of the American Society of International Law.

International arbitration is an increasingly popular means of alternative dispute resolution for cross-border commercial transactions. The primary advantage of international arbitration over court litigation is enforceability: an international arbitration award is enforceable in most countries in the world. Other advantages of international arbitration include the ability to select a neutral forum to resolve disputes, that arbitration awards are final and not ordinarily subject to appeal, the ability to choose flexible procedures for the arbitration, and confidentiality.

Once a dispute between parties is settled, the winning party needs to collect the award or judgment. Unless the assets of the losing party are located in the country where the court judgment was rendered, the winning party needs to obtain a court judgment in the jurisdiction where the other party resides or where its assets are located. Unless there is a treaty on recognition of court judgments between the country where the judgment is rendered and the country where the winning party seeks to collect, the winning party will be unable to use the court judgment to collect.

B. Overview of the Convention

The convention has got XVI articles divided in to further sub articles, but with no further division in to parts. It defines ‘foreign arbitral award’ as  arbitral awards made in the territory of a State other than the State where the recognition and enforcement of such awards are sought, and arising out of differences between persons, whether physical or legal. In addition, arbitral awards not considered as domestic awards in the State where their recognition and enforcement are sought can be assimilated to foreign arbitral awards as per Article I(1) of this the convention. Article IV obliges the party applying for recognition and enforcement to provide, in the language of the nation where enforcement or recognition is sought, the copy of the authenticated original award or a duly certified copy thereof and the original agreement (arbitral submission) or a duly certified copy thereof.

Under the Convention documents as per Article II and III, an arbitration award issued in any contracting state can generally be freely enforced in any other contracting state, only subject to certain, limited defenses. These defenses are:

1. party to the arbitration agreement was, under the law applicable to him, under some incapacity;
2. the arbitration agreement was not valid under its governing law;
3. a party was not given proper notice of the appointment of the arbitrator or of the arbitration proceedings, or was otherwise unable to present its case;
4. the award deals with an issue not contemplated by or not falling within the terms of the submission to arbitration, or contains matters beyond the scope of the arbitration (subject to the proviso that an award which contains decisions on such matters may be enforced to the extent that it contains decisions on matters submitted to arbitration which can be separated from those matters not so submitted);
5. the composition of the arbitral tribunal was not in accordance with the agreement of the parties or, failing such agreement, with the law of the place where the hearing took place (the "lex loci arbitri");
6. the award has not yet become binding upon the parties, or has been set aside or suspended by a competent authority, either in the country where the arbitration took place, or pursuant to the law of the arbitration agreement;
7. the subject matter of the award was not capable of resolution by arbitration; or
8. enforcement would be contrary to "public policy".

C. List of Member States

Countries which have adopted the New York Convention have agreed to recognize and enforce international arbitration awards. As of September 2007, 141 of the 192 United Nations Member States and the Holy See have adopted the New York Convention. Only 51 Member States and Taiwan have not yet adopted the New York Convention. A number of British Dependent Territories have not yet had the Convention extended to them by Order-in-Council. For easy understanding of the status of world nations in light of the convention, here are the list nations that are signatories and which are not party to it. The fact that Ethiopia and many other African nations are not signatories to the convention can be easily analyzed on the face of these lists. In the last part of this chapter we will see Ethiopian approach to these documents and the alternative one as well.

STATE PARTIES TO THE CONVENTION ON THE RECOGNITION AND ENFORCEMENT OF FOREIGN ARBITRAL AWARDS, 1958 (as of May 2007)

Afghanistan, Albania, Algeria, Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, Armenia, Australia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Bahamas, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Barbados, Belarus, Belgium, Benin, Bolivia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Botswana, Brazil, Brunei Darussalam, Bulgaria, Burkina Faso, Cambodia, Cameroon, Canada, Central African Republic, Chile, China, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cote d’Ivore, Croatia, Cuba, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Djibouti, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Estonia, Finland, France, Gabon, Georgia, Germany, Ghana, Greece, Guatemala, Guinea, Haiti, Holy See, Honduras, Hungary, Iceland, India, Indonesia, Iran, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Jamaica, Japan, Jordan,  Kazakhstan, Kenya, Kuwait, Kyrgyzstan, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Latvia, Lebanon, Lesotho, Liberia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Madagascar, Malaysia, Mali, Malta, Marshall Islands, Mauritania, Mauritius, Mexico, Moldova, Monaco, Mongolia, Montenegro, Morocco, Mozambique, Nepal, Netherlands, New Zealand, Nicaragua, Niger, Nigeria, Norway, Oman, Pakistan, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Qatar, Republic of Korea, Romania, Russian Federation, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, San Marino, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, Serbia, Singapore, Slovakia, Slovenia, South Africa, Spain, Sri Lanka, Sweden, Switzerland, Syrian Arab Republic, Thailand, The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Trinidad and Tobago, Tunisia, Turkey, Uganda, Ukraine, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, United Republic of Tanzania, United States of America, Uruguay, Uzbekistan, Venezuela, Vietnam, Zambia, Zimbabwe.

States which are Not Party to the New York Convention (as of May 2007)

Andorra, Angola, Belize, Belize, Bhutan, British Virgin Islands, Burundi, Cape Verde, Chad, Comoros, Congo - Dem. Republic of the, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Fiji, Gambia, Grenada, Guinea-Bissau, Guyana, Iraq, Kiribati, North Korea, Libya, Liechtenstein, Malawi, Maldives, Micronesia, - Fed. States of, Myanmar, Namibia, Nauru, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Rwanda, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Samoa, Sao Tome and Principe, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Solomon Islands, Somalia, Sudan, Suriname, Swaziland, Timor-Leste, Togo, Tonga, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Tuvalu, Vanuatu, Yemen

This document, in fact, harmonized the enforcement of foreign arbitral award since most of the nations of the world approved it. Its contents help the disputants to fill confidence on enforceability of outcomes of tribunals validly established out of their national jurisdiction. The fact that Ethiopia is not yet the signatory of this document by itself will not absolutely hinder the enforceability of awards given elsewhere for we can use the civil procedure provisions (Arts 450 – 456) in the matter.

Convention for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes (1899 and 1907) and the Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA)

The Convention which could be said the first in its nature and content came in to the hands of leaders in the late 1890’s for approval. The same document, with out affecting the status of the existing one and as well the commitment of signatories, by enclosing a more detailed stipulation came in to existence in 1907. These two conventions are the founding documents of the Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA), which is established two decades before the establishment of the Permanent Court of Justice in the late 1910’s, which is now replaced by the International Court of Justice.

The objectives behind the initiation of these conventions are set in the preamble of the documents. The great Majesty and Empresses of the time, in 1899, have put the following as their objective

1. a strong desire to work for the maintenance of general peace;
2. to resolve and promote by their best efforts the friendly settlement of international disputes;
3. recognizing the solidarity uniting the members of the society of civilized nations;
4. desirous of extending the empire of law, and of strengthening the appreciation of international justice;
5. convinced that the permanent institution of a tribunal of arbitration, accessible to all, in the midst of the independent Powers, will contribute effectively to this result;
6. having regard to the advantages attending the general and regular organization of the procedure of arbitration;
7. sharing the opinion of the august initiator of the International Peace Conference that it is expedient to record in an international agreement the principles of equity and right on which are based the security of States and the welfare of peoples.

Among the points that necessitated the coming in to existence of the new Convention which was signed in the year 1907 were the following (it is noted that the second Convention also shares the objectives set by the first one listed here above);

1. Insuring the better working in practice of Commissions of Inquiry and Tribunals of Arbitration, and of facilitating recourse to arbitration in cases which allow of a summary procedure;
2. The necessity to revise in certain particulars and to complete the work of the First Peace Conference for the pacific settlement of international disputes (held in 1899);

The first convention has 61 articles under four Titles. Title I, shortly in a single article, sets the objective of the Convention and interests of the signatory nations, i.e. “with a view to obviating, as far as possible, recourse to force in the relations between States, the Contracting Powers agree to use their best efforts to ensure the pacific settlement of international differences.” Title II established the first alternatives of settling dispute among member states by using “Good Offices and Mediation” and the procedures there under. The third Title deals with the possibility of establishing “International Commission of Inquiry” to facilitate a solution for differences of international nature by elucidating the facts by means of an impartial and conscientious investigation. The last Title, in depth, regulates international arbitration between the member states. This part established the Permanent Court of Arbitration in its chapter two having its seat in The Hague. The organization of the tribunal, the powers and duties of the disputant states before the tribunal, the jurisdiction of the court, the effect and binging nature of the award has been thoroughly discussed. At end, the Convention has got a General Provision which speaks about the ratification or membership process, the coming in to force of the Convention and other matters.

When we come to the second Convention, most of its contents are similar with the 1899 Convention except in some circumstances. It has, in deed, 97 Articles under its five Parts. I could say that the first two parts of this convention is a literal copy of its predecessor. Under Part III, which deals about the International Commission of Inquiry, more detailed provisions have been included as to its working procedure. Especially, the commission has been put under the supervision of the International Bureau of the Permanent Court of Arbitration, which serves as a registrar. Part IV of it included a new system which was not there under the predecessor Convention. Chapter IV of it established “Arbitration by Summary Procedure” in disputes admitting of a summary procedure. The last one, Part V, is devoted for “Final Provisions” regarding membership and coming in to force of the Convention.

When we come to memberships, we can see three different categories of nation; member for one of the Conventions and member for both of the Conventions. Generally speaking, 107 states have acceded to one or both of the PCA's founding conventions. It is noted here that Ethiopia is a member to the 1899 founding convention starting from May 28, 2003. Proclamation No 348/2003 approves the said Convention and incorporated it to the legal regime of the nation.

In addition to these founding Conventions, the PCA has some more Arbitration and Conciliation rules where the disputing parties can free to accept or refuse of its application on their disputes. These are, the 1992 PCA Optional Rule for Arbitrating Disputes between two States, the 1996 PCA Optional Rules for Arbitration Involving International Organization and States, and the 1996 PCA Optional Conciliation Rules. These optional rules made in accordance with the UNCITRAL model laws enacted so far including model Arbitration and Conciliation clauses.

The first two optional rules, i.e. arbitration rules, have been elaborated for use in arbitrating disputes arising under treaties or other agreements between two States, and disputes arising under treaties, or other agreements or relationships between an international organization and a State, or between two international organizations. But they can be, as well, modified for use in connection with multilateral treaties. The Rules are based on the UNCITRAL Arbitration Rules with changes in order to:

(i) reflect the public international law character of disputes between States, and between   international organizations and States and diplomatic practice appropriate to such disputes ;

(ii) indicate the role of the Secretary-General and the International Bureau of the Permanent Court of Arbitration at The Hague, and the relation of these Rules with the 1899 and 1907 Hague Conventions for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes; and

(iii) provide freedom for the parties to choose to have an arbitral tribunal of one, three or five persons.

The Rules are optional and emphasize flexibility and party autonomy. For example:

(i) the Rules, and the services of the Secretary-General and the International Bureau of the Permanent Court of Arbitration, are available for use by all States, and are not restricted to disputes in which both States are parties to either The Hague Convention for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes of 1899 or that of 1907;

(ii) the choice of arbitrators is not limited to persons who are listed as Members of the Permanent Court of Arbitration;

(iii) States have complete freedom to agree upon any individual or institution as appointing authority. In order to provide a failsafe mechanism to prevent frustration of the arbitration, the Rules provide that the Secretary-General will designate an appointing authority if the parties do not agree upon the authority, or if the authority they choose does not act.

The following can be said about the PCA’s Optional Conciliation Rule.

A. Purpose of the Rules

Parties who have disputes that they are unable to settle through consultation and negotiation with each other may wish to consider conciliation as a method for resolving their differences without the need to resort to arbitration or judicial means.

Although the benefits of conciliation are widely recognized, some parties may hesitate to enter into conciliation because they may be unfamiliar with the process or may have different views concerning how conciliation should be conducted. In order to facilitate greater use of conciliation, the Permanent Court of Arbitration has, with the approval of the Administrative Council, established these Optional Conciliation Rules (‘the PCA Optional Conciliation Rules’). These Rules are based on the UNCITRAL Conciliation Rules, with changes to indicate, inter alia, the availability of the Secretary-General of the Permanent Court of Arbitration to assist in appointing conciliators and of the International Bureau to furnish administrative support (Arts 4 (3) and 8).

The purpose of these Rules is to provide a convenient basis for mutual agreement of parties on practical procedures that are useful in the conciliation process. Thus, for example, the Rules describe how to start a conciliation, how to appoint conciliators, what functions conciliators are expected to perform, and how to encourage parties to speak freely and candidly with conciliators while at the same time preserving necessary confidentiality. These Rules also describe how, if the conciliation is unsuccessful, it may be easily terminated so as not to delay or prejudice recourse to arbitration, judicial procedures or other means for ultimately resolving the dispute.

B. Scope of Application

The PCA Optional Conciliation Rules were prepared primarily for use in assisting to resolve disputes arising out of or relating to legal relationships where the parties seek an amicable settlement of their differences. In addition, parties are free to agree to use these Rules in seeking to resolve any other type of dispute.

These Rules are intended for use in conciliating disputes in which one or more of the parties is a State, a State entity or enterprise, or an international organization. Thus, for example, the same Rules may be used in disputes between two States and also in disputes between two parties only one of which is a State.

The PCA recognizes the importance and complexity of disputes that involve more than two parties. These Rules are also appropriate for use in connection with multiparty disputes, provided that changes are made to reflect participation by more than two parties. The Secretary-General of the Permanent Court of Arbitration is available to consult with interested parties concerning modifications that may be considered in adapting these Rules for use in multiparty disputes.

These Rules, and the services of the Secretary-General and the International Bureau, are available for use by all States and their entities and enterprises, and are not restricted to disputes in which the State is a party to either the Hague Convention on the Pacific

Settlement of International Disputes of 1899, or that of 1907, nor is the choice of conciliators limited to persons who are listed as Members of the Permanent Court of Arbitration.

In modern international practice, the word ‘mediation’ is sometimes used to designate a process that is very similar to the procedures for ‘conciliation’ described in these Rules. In such cases, these Rules can also be used for mediation, it being necessary only to change the words ‘conciliation’ to ‘mediation’ and ‘conciliator’ to ‘mediator.’

C. Main Characteristics of the Rule

Parties who consider using the PCA Optional Conciliation Rules will wish to be aware of some of the main characteristics of these Rules:

A Voluntary Process - A primary principle that is expressed throughout these Rules is that initiating and continuing conciliation is entirely voluntary. Thus, these Rules provide that conciliation begins when all parties consent (Arts 2 (2) and 3) and that one party may terminate the process whenever it unilaterally determines that conciliation is no longer desirable (Art 15 (a)). These provisions reflect the belief that conciliation has the best chance to succeed when all parties share the desire to participate, and that, if they do not, it may be more efficient to resort without delay to arbitration or judicial means.

Flexible Procedures - Flexibility is another fundamental characteristic of these Rules. Parties are free to agree to have one or more conciliators (art. 3). The conciliator may conduct the process in such manner as he considers appropriate, taking into account the circumstances of the dispute, any views the parties may have expressed and any special need for a speedy settlement. The role of the conciliator under the PCA Optional Conciliation Rules is to assist parties to understand the issues and to reach an amicable settlement of their dispute. In pursuit of this goal, the conciliator may recommend terms of settlement if and when it is considered wise to do so, but the conciliator is not required to give a recommendation (art. 7 (4)). The approach of the conciliator under these Rules is to bring the parties to agreement by a variety of means, rather than to focus primarily on influencing the parties by a recommendation.

An Integrated System - A significant feature of the PCA Optional Conciliation Rules is that they are part of an integrated PCA dispute resolution system that links the procedures for conciliation with possible arbitration under the various PCA Optional Arbitration Rules. This is useful because if a dispute is not resolved by conciliation, parties may wish to move promptly to final and binding arbitration. Therefore, these Rules provide several important safeguards that apply in the event that arbitration, or recourse to judicial means, follows an unsuccessful conciliation.

The ultimate safeguard against using conciliation to delay commencement of arbitration is the key provision of these Rules that, as mentioned above, permits one party to terminate conciliation if it reaches the conclusion that the conciliation is no longer desirable. Moreover, by agreeing to conciliation under these Rules, the parties undertake that if the conciliation does not result in a settlement they will not introduce in any subsequent arbitration, or judicial proceedings, certain specified evidence that might be harmful. The evidence thus barred by these Rules consists of: (i) any views expressed by either party concerning possible settlement of the dispute; (ii) any admissions made by either party in the conciliation; (iii) any proposals made by the conciliator(s); or (iv) the fact that a party indicated willingness to accept a proposal for settlement made by the conciliator (art. 20). These provisions effectively protect parties and thereby encourage candor and a free exchange of views during the conciliation. Additional safeguards in these Rules include that the parties and conciliator undertake that, unless the parties vary the Rules, a conciliator will not act as an arbitrator or representative of a party in any arbitration or judicial proceeding in respect of a dispute that is subject to the conciliation, and that no party will present a conciliator as a witness in any such proceeding (art. 19).

A related safeguard arises from the provision of these Rules that makes clear that the conciliator may speak with the parties together or may meet them separately when that is advisable (art. 9 (1)). These Rules also provide that a party may communicate information to the conciliator subject to the restriction that it not be disclosed to the other party (art. 10). These provisions encourage parties to confide in the conciliator – which may be vital in guiding the conciliator in the search for an amicable solution – and also to protect parties in arbitration or court litigation that may occur if no solution is found in the conciliation.

The Conventions for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes are the first documents that opened the mob towards common understanding of the value of ADR in the settlement of international disputes of any kind. The fact that the PCA were working well even before the establishment of League of Nations and the court under it, i.e. the Permanent Court of Justice, shows us the common understanding of the leaders of the nation about the threat of dispute to the world peace and the value of ADR to tackle it. The new three rules are not mandatory rules and anybody whether a member to the PCA or not can freely use it though the matter has not been referred to the PCA.

Scope and Parties to International ADR

In the field where there exists the involvement of more than one parties or interaction among human beings, it might be inevitable to think of the possible existence of disputes. Human relation ship is becoming diversified backed by modern technologies. The world’s commercial and diplomatic relation requires the involvement of at least more than one nation or citizens of a nation. Trade is becoming a global phenomenon which requires the involvement of more than one nations or citizens or entities of different nations. It is also becoming impossible this time to think of internal peace and security with out having smooth diplomatic relation ship with the neighbour and even other states far from once geographical location. Border disputes are also common between states especially after the mid of the 20^th century as a result of a lots of independences in Africa, Asia and even in Europe. Extra – territorial crimes it self is one treat to the peace and stability of the international community which involves the cooperation of the nations of the world in making sure that criminals did not get a shelter in a nation other than where the crime was committed and are duly prosecuted. Dispute may arise in the extradiction policy of one nation and the ambition of the other nation to prosecute the suspect. These give rise to the existence of differences or disputes which cannot be easily adjudicated by the formal courts of one of the nations involved there under.

These are some examples of international disputes that are frequent in the current global relations. The question to be raised at this very junction is that can we take all these and other kinds of disputes before ADR tribunal and get a valid and enforceable, before the international community and the disputants, out come from it? Do we have subject matters of dispute which can’t be safely entertained by ADR? The other related issue is about the capacity and identity of parties who can be a party before international ADR? The latter question is a kin to the controversy over the subjects of international law; sovereign nations and international organizations only or individual citizens and private institutes as well?

For instance, research has been done about the adequacy of the settlement of trade mark disputes occurring over the world by Rosanne T. Mitchell (Rosanne T. Mitchell, Resolving Domain Name-Trademark Disputes: A New System of Alternative Dispute Resolution Is Needed in Cyberspace, 14 OHIO ST. J. ON DISP. RESOL. 157 (1998), Cardozo Journal of Conflict Resolution). This article contends that current dispute resolution procedures are inadequate for alleviating trademark controversies over Internet domain names. The author believes expansion of the number of generic top level domains and registrars around the globe requires the implementation of an alternative dispute resolution system. Mitchell argues that this system will eliminate uncertainties in determining an appropriate forum and will dramatically decrease litigation time and expenses. The International Ad Hoc Committee's proposal, facilitated by the World Intellectual Property Organization ("WIPO"), attains these goals by providing three dispute resolution procedures: (1) on-line mediation; (2) on-line expedited arbitration; and (3) administrative challenge panels. The author contends that this proposal embodies an optimum solution for insufficient conflict resolution methods. Thus, Mitchell proposes that the United States government and WIPO should adopt this method to effectively resolve all trademark domain name disputes.

International arbitration has proved a useful method of settling some territorial disputes between nations. The question remains, however, as to whether arbitration is an appropriate dispute resolution mechanism to settle ethnic-based claims to land and a research was done on this area (Carla S. Copeland, Note, The Use of Arbitration to Settle Territorial Dispute, 67 FORDHAM L. REV. 3073 (1999), Cardozo Journal of Conflict Resolution). This research addresses the issue by examining three separate arbitration proceedings that have each involved a territorial dispute: (1) the Rann of Kutch arbitration between Pakistan and India; (2) the Taba Area arbitration between Israel and Egypt; and (3) the arbitration between the two Bosnian entities over the Brko area, as provided for by the Dayton Accords. The note concludes that the use of arbitration to solve territorial disputes can be successful only where the parties are committed to resolving the dispute peacefully through arbitration and that such a commitment is unlikely if the dispute involves an issue of vital national importance. Thus, this note contends that an attempt by the international community to force states to arbitrate such disputes may discourage future parties from using the procedure.

Another research was done to determine whether or not mediation works well in public disputes like armed conflict and deadly conflict and peace making role of mediation. In each of these types of dispute mediation has proved it self to be an effective kind of dispute settlement either in resolving the conflict totally or by mitigating the degree of contention. Peace keeping role of mediation is witnessed, for example, in Senator G. Mitchell’s role in mediating the peace talks that led to the Good Friday/Belfast Agreement in 1998 in Northern Ireland. The conflict is often expressed in religious terms as a clash between Catholic and Protestants as a great many Protestants want to keep Northern Ireland in union with the United Kingdom (Unionists) and where a great many Catholics favour Northern Ireland becoming part of the Republic of Ireland (Nationalists). Senator G. Mitchell was appointed as a chair of all party talks and it ends with agreement.

In the field of armed conflicts the effort of Carter Centre’s International Negotiation Network (INN) to mediate one of the longest civil wars in African history between the government of the People’s Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (PDRE) and the Eritrean People’s Liberation Front (EPLF) in 1989 can be mentioned. Lead by the then president of USA, Carter, the two parties have made a partially successful two round meeting in Atlanta – USA and Nairobi – Kenya which ends with agreement on procedural matters. Mediation was tested in deadly conflicts of Bosnia and Rwanda

The above discussion makes clear the experience of different kinds of ADR in resolving international conflicts of different nature. Public disputes which would get a challenge in the domestic jurisdiction of ADR have been freely and fruitfully entertained in the international relations. Thus, we may say that it would be difficult to say that there are subject matters of a dispute in the international level which can’t be entertained by ADR.

In case of capacity of parties before international ADR, the same conclusion can be reached and say that as long as a party has a cause of action and as long as both of the disputants are consented, it would be the obligation of the panel or tribunal to enforce the interest of the parties. This is witnessed from the provisions of different international documents. In arbitration, a party's ability or obligation to arbitrate an international dispute arises from its consent as a signatory to a contract that contains an arbitration clause. Article 1 of the AAA's International Arbitration Rules provides that an international arbitration shall occur "where parties have agreed in writing to arbitrate disputes." The 1958 United Nations Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards (New York Convention), the legal framework by which the international community has chosen to regulate the enforcement of arbitral agreements and awards, imparts a similar writing requirement.

The effort made above shows us that the limitation we have in domestic jurisdiction of ADR over public interest cases would not arise in international relation as most of the disputes between states are resolved by using ADR. In addition, public international law denies parties other than sovereign states and some international organization with the right to be a party before it. This will not happen in ADR as private individuals, private commercial and civic institutes, states and group interests are freely entertained before it.

The need for ADR in International disputes

We have different forums with the power to entertain disputes and give binding disposition to the dispute there under. The most dominant and binding one is that which derives its power from the supreme laws, i.e. constitution, of each nation to entertain disputes with in the nation’s jurisdictional limit. In addition, customary and alternative kinds of dispute resolution mechanism supplement the function of courts of law by entertaining disputes of different kinds in the domestic relations. The spheres of functioning of these devises are mostly limited to the disputes that arise in the national level.  If the dispute has some nature of international dispute, it is not to mean that these forums established in the national level do not have jurisdiction to entertain the case. The issue here is about the conflict of interest that might arise between the disputants as to forum and law, and the nations and also the enforceability of such out comes in the other nation. International treaties have tried to address these conflict of interest issues and make court decisions much smoother and enforceable in other nations.

Further, international tribunals have been established by the UN to serve as a forum for international disputes. Most nations of the world are making their diplomatic and commercial relations much smoother by the help of their institutes, i.e. UN. Though, there is unlimited number of critiques against the enforceability and reasonableness of decisions given by UN dispute settlement systems, huge number of international disputes are well addressed by it. The panel established under WTO is also the other most widely acceptable dispute settlement mechanism entertaining a wide range of international trade disputes raised among the member states.

What necessitated ADR in international disputes in the existence of all these different kings of mechanism function well in different kinds of disputes? Do you think that there are a lot more kinds (subject matters) of disputes not yet addressed by these mechanisms we have seen so far? Or is that because the enforcement of decisions or out comes of these mechanisms have got obstacles?

A. Extra – territorial relations of citizens – With the increasing concept of ‘Globalization’, the interaction of citizens with other person or entity who is not a citizen of him is not uncommon. To survive as a state and to have a civilized nation peacefully established on the willingness of the subjects, the government should encourage such kinds of commercial and social interactions. The state is bound by its commitment to give protection to its and its citizens’ interests. As long as there is relation, commercial or other, it is inevitable for a conflict to arise from that relation. It will be wise to look for effective means of dispute settlement for such kind of dispute where the outcome will get recognition from all parties and which secure the enforceability of it as well. At this time ADR can be thought as a best alternative.

B. Limitations of the domestic courts - As it has been explained earlier the jurisdiction of domestic courts is limited to the matters related with the citizens’ interest and sometimes in the interests of public. Stated differently, state courts might have not jurisdiction to matters arised in international disputes for some times the other party is not clearly under the jurisdiction of the court so that enforcement of such kinds of court decisions will be obstacles. That means citizens might not get the opportunity to get the decision enforced and thereby exercise their rights. Especially, when one of the parties is not an Ethiopian and/or if he doesn’t have any property under Ethiopian jurisdiction, the decision given against him will not be easily enforced unless there is reciprocity in between the nations. The other thing is when there is a conflict of interest between the nations where the two disputants belong to. This happens where, for instance, both of the nation claims to have primary jurisdiction over the matter, when there is no reciprocity agreement to the enforceability of decisions given in one state to the other one. The parties, in such instances, prefer alternative meanses of getting justice by taking their grievances to ADR based on the sole consent of the disputants.

International Arbitration by J.S. Verma (taken from a book entitled, Alternative Dispute Resolution, Univ. Law Publishing. P. 13)

I. Need for International Arbitration,

The growth of international trades bound to give rise to international disputes which transcend national frontiers and geographical boundaries. For the resolution of such disputes the preference to international arbitration vis-à-vis litigation in national courts is natural because of arbitration being preferred to litigation in courts and the foreign element being preferred in the international arbitration to the domestic elements in the national courts. This is also because there is no international court to deal with international commercial disputes. “In situations of this kind, recourse to international arbitration in a convenient and neutral forum is generally seen as more acceptable the recourse to the courts as a way of solving any dispute which can’t be settled by negotiation.” (Alan Redforn and Martin Hunter, Law and Practice of International Commercial Arbitration, 2^nd ed. P. 26.)

The rationale and purpose of international arbitration should be to provide a convenient, neutral, fair, expeditious and efficacious forum for resolving disputes relating to international commerce.

Basic features which are uniform in the legal framework for resolution of international commercial disputes “can be broken down in to three stages; (i) jurisdiction, (ii) choice of law, and (iii) the recognition and enforcement of judgements and awards.” (Jonathan Hill, in the Law Relating to International Commercial Disputes, para. 1.1.3).

The trend towards growing judicial intervention which tends to interfere with arbitral autonomy as also finality is a significant factor to be kept in view. The need is to reconcile and harmonise arbitral autonomy and finality with judicial review of the arbitral process. National law differ on this issue. UNCITRAL Mode Law attempts to promote harmony and uniformity in this sphere. The aim is to ensure arbitral autonomy coupled with neutrality or impartiality in the arbitral process by the composition of the arbitral tribunal by competent and impartial members with ensures equality between the parties and full opportunity to them to present their case. Total exclusion of judicial intervention does not match with the current trend but the scope of judicial supervision needs to be reduced to the minimum. The source of authority of the international arbitral tribunal is the agreement of the parties and not the mandate of the State. The choice of the law applicable is also determined by the provision in the arbitral agreement. With the increased arbitral autonomy the requirement of reasons for the award is greater. Apart from transparency in the arbitral process, it also acts as an inherent check on the arbitrators and discloses to the party the basis of the award and the logical process by which the conclusion was reached by the arbitrators. The presence of the reason also regulates the scope of judicial supervision.

Informality of the arbitral process permits relaxation from strict rules of evidence and it reduces costs and delay which are often unavoidable in litigation. However, observance of basic principles of natural justice cannot be dispensed with.

Appropriate provisions for enforcement of award are essential to impart efficacy to international arbitration.

C. To promote of Access to Justice – It is not only on the national level that peoples will be denied of the right to have access to courts, but some times it happens in the international relations as well. For instance, it happens when none of the domestic courts of the disputants assume jurisdiction over the matter. In other words, some times the national courts where the disputants belong to me may not have the jurisdiction to entertain the case according to their own national laws. In such instances, the parties will not get access to any of the courts and the only alternative for them will be to look for ADR based on their free consent.

“Following its exponential development in US, the ADR movement was exported to many parts of the world. National courts in Europe, stymied by the volume of transborder litigation, have been attracted to ADR. Members of the European Union see ADR as a way to facilitate access to justice, a fundamental right contained inn Article 6 of the European Convention for the protection of Human rights and Fundamental Freedoms. Growing interest in ADR in the European Union has also resulted in a Green Paper proposing greater use of alternative process in civil and commercial matters, and efforts are currently underway to develop a European Code of Conduct on mediation.” (International Conflict Resolution; Consensual ADR Process, American Case Book Series, Thomson west Pub, 2005, p. 18)

D. Development of e-commerce – Most of the time we think of three parties involved in ADR, the two disputants what ever there number may be and the third neutral intermediator. But these days, it becomes common to see ADR as a square or rectangle instead of a triangle. The fourth party, the new presence in the table, is the technology that works with the mediator or arbitrator. Interest in this fourth party has been fuelled by the emerging cyber market place, a market place of transactions taking place over the internet, known as e-commerce. These buyers and sellers need access to cost effective and efficient means to resolving disputes that arise from these online transactions. These buyers and sellers need a dispute resolution process that is inexpensive- one in which the costs are much lower than the purchase price of the commodity. Going to court or convening mediation are not viable resolution methods for these modest transactions.

“The development of e-commerce also increased the need for ADR. Given the difficulties of processing e-commerce disputes in a global e-market place, on-line dispute resolution has become an attractive alternative, particularly in small disputes. When ADR processes, such as mediation and arbitration, occur in the on-line environment, it is often referred as online dispute resolution (ODR).

In the context of civil disputes ADR processes, such as negotiation and mediation, introduced a civilized way to resolve international conflicts. They were designed to overcome the limitations and failures of domestic judicial processes and the lack of a binding international public process.” (International Conflict Resolution; Consensual ADR Process, American Case Book Series, Thomson west Pub, 2005, P. 19-20)

E. Influence of the UN Charter – The traditional dispute settlement procedures available under international law are enumerated in Article 33 of the UN Charter;

1. The parties to any dispute, the continuance of which is likely to endanger the maintenance of international peace and security, shall, first of all, seek a solution by negotiation, enquiry, mediation, conciliation, arbitration, judicial settlement, resort to regional agencies or arrangements, or other peace full means of their own choice.

2.  The Security Council shall, when it deems necessary, call up on the parties to settle the dispute by such meas.

Negotiation is generally acknowledged as the most fundamental of these processes. The most common process for international dispute settlement, however, are the diplomatic or the consensual methods – mediation and good offices, enquiry, and conciliation. The consultation process, although not mentioned in Article 33 of the UN Charter, is a species of negotiation that should be considered as part of the traditional package of processes for the resolution of international disputes. Together with pre-negotiation activities, such as public peace processes, coalition-building, dialogue groups, and co-existence practices, theses processes offer a panoply of choices for dispute and conflict resolution practitioners. (p. 20)

This provision of the UN Charter and the general trend in the world towards ADR as a means of settling dispute makes the disputants to put trust and confidence on the procedure. The recognition of ADR in the charter as a first option before resorting to the International Court of Justice (ICJ), a court established under the umbrella of the UN by its charter, dictates the easy enforceability and the quality of ADR outcomes. It is also considered as a preliminary proceeding before going to ICJ.

F. The Limitation of International Courts – Internationally well functioning tribunals like the International Court of Justice (ICJ) and Criminal Court of Justice (CCJ) of the UN and the Dispute Settlement Body of the WTO have lots of limitation. The first one is the identity of the parties that have the right to institute a case or defend their case before these tribunals. It is only sovereign sates and some times international organizations that can be a party before the ICJ. By the same taken, the WTO tribunal accepts claims only from member states. In terms of the subject matters which can be seen by these tribunals, all; cases can’t be entertained before them. Most of the time ICJ entertains disputes “concerning issues related to frontiers and maritime boundaries, territorial sovereignty, the non-use of forces, non-interference in the internal affairs of States, diplomatic relations, hostage-taking, the right of asylum, nationality, guardianship, rights of passage, and economic rights.” (International Conflict Resolution; Consensual ADR Process, American Case Book Series, Thomson west Pub, 2005, p. 42). In the other hand, CCJ has jurisdiction to adjudicate only the gravest offences affecting the international community: genocide, crime against humanity and war crimes. The WTO tribunal entertains disputes in the implementation of any of its documents, like the GATT.

Though, these tribunals try to cover most of the possible disputes in terms of subject matters, the right of the international community to take its cases before them is not fully guaranteed. Thus, we have a lot more parties who do not have a right before any of these tribunals, like individuals, NGOs, companies etc. By the taken, we have some more subject matters of disputes which can’t be entertained in any of these tribunals, like ownership of property, tort claims etc. ADR tries to fill these gaps or matters which are not well addressed by these well known tribunals of the world.